APPENDIX D

WEATHER PROGRAMS OF OTHER AGENCIES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE

Weather is the most important factor influencing the Nation's variability in crop yields and related production. The Nation's food and fiber products are a critical resource impacting our domestic and international economic position and have taken on new dimensions in foreign affairs and national security. The recent expansion in export markets has reduced stocks and benefitted our farm sectors as global consumption of total grains has exceeded production in 3 of the last 4 years. The U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) conducts supporting research that focuses on understanding the interactions of weather and climate with plants, animals, forests, and forest ecological systems, and assists the Department of Commerce in determining farmers' needs for weather information and in disseminating that information to them.

The World Agricultural Outlook Board (WAOB), in cooperation with National Weather Service's (NWS) Climate Prediction Center, monitors the daily weather patterns around the world. WAOB agricultural meteorologists convert the weather data into information to assess crop development and yield potential of all major commodity crops for the major producing areas of the world. Special weekly briefings are provided to the Secretary of Agriculture and to the economic and commodity analysts of USDA. The Senate and House Agricultural Committees also request periodic briefings on crop- related drought effects as in 1988 and 1989.

Historically, the Forest Service (FS) has collected meteorological data to assist in the control of forest fires and in the management of smoke from prescribed burning. Other activities also need weather data to ensure sound management decisions. Therefore, a national weather program was established to coordinate all FS meteorological activities and to meet the increasing need for diverse weather information. The major objectives of the program are to: (1) improve quality control of weather data, (2) improve the design and operation of data collection from networks, (3) increase data recovery from the weather stations, and (4) upgrade station maintenance. Meteorological data collected from manual weather stations and Remote Automated Weather Stations (RAWS) support research of weather effects on forestry management, forest fires, smoke management, visibility protection in wilderness areas, and atmospheric deposition. A weather information management system and a library to archive all FS weather data are being developed in cooperation with regional climate centers. The FS monitoring network will provide essential data for use in Global Change Research Program (GCRP) work.

The FS currently operates more than 900 RAWS and manual stations, many in the western United States. Air temperature, relative humidity, soil moisture, wind direction and speed, and precipitation are transmitted via NOAA's Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) telemetry. These data are received via a direct-readout ground site in Boise, Idaho, in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management. The main use of the data is in the calculation of the fire danger rating for the FS and cooperating agencies. These data are also used by other resource managers; such as, road engineers, wildlife biologists, and hydrologists who monitor precipitation; silviculturalists (who are attempting to maximize tree- planting opportunities); and ecologists, soil specialists, and fisheries biologists (who monitor the effects of runoff). The main secondary user of RAWS data is the NWS for fire weather forecasting and flood warnings.

The Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS) operates a network of 1,400 manual snow courses and over 550 automated data collection sites in conjunction with the project (SNOTEL) for the western U.S. and Alaska. The primary objective of the project is to forecast water supplies and streamflow for the coming spring run-off season. These measurements are made in cooperation with other federal, state, and local agencies, power companies, irrigation companies, and the provincial government of British Columbia.

Water-supply forecasts help irrigators make the most effective use of available streamflow for achieving their agricultural production goals. Farmers who collectively irrigate more than 10 million acres of land in the western U.S. benefit from water supply forecasts. Other federal agencies and private organizations also use water supply forecast information to help them carry out their missions. These forecasts also help the federal government in administering international water treaties.

Beginning in FY 1987, NRCS initiated an upgrade to the SNOTEL data collection system at a total cost of $5 million. This effort continues and includes upgrading 510 data collection sites in the existing SNOTEL system with new state-of-the-art equipment and adding about 40 additional sites. The data-collection site upgrade will include replacement of snow pillows, transducers, damaged precipitation gauges, antennas, towers, solar panels, battery temperature sensors, and deteriorated shelter houses.

Supporting Research

The mission of the USDA supporting research program is to develop and disseminate information and techniques to ensure high quality commodities and products while minimizing any adverse effects of agriculture on the environment. As part of the USDA reorganization, the new Undersecretary for Research, Education, and Economics was created. This includes the merger of the Cooperative State Research Service and the Extension Service, and the transfer of the Economic Research Service and the National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS).

The research efforts of the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) relate directly to the effects of climate on agricultural production and the natural resource base. They are directed toward developing technologies and systems for (1) managing precipitation and solar energy for optimum crop production, (2) improving our understanding of water-plant-atmosphere interactions, (3) optimizing the use of energy, water, and agricultural chemicals, (4) reducing plant and livestock losses from pests and environmental stress, (5) developing improved techniques for irrigation and drainage, and (6) minimizing the adverse effects of climate and weather, including atmospheric contaminants, on the environment.

The Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extensive Service (CSREES) coordinates research programs in the state agricultural experiment stations, the 1890 Land Grant Distributions, and cooperating forestry schools. These institutions conduct a wide variety of research applicable to agriculture and forestry. Meteorological research in these institutions is practically all climatological. A proportion of each state's program is consolidated into broad regional research projects. Animals and plants are subjected to many climatic stresses and, therefore, are the focus of this research. Research on the changes in levels of ultraviolet (UV) radiation as part of the GCRP was significantly expanded through the CSREES competitive grants program in FY 1994. The work is coordinated with EPA's UV radiation program and will support assessment efforts to develop related national policy on the environment.

Investigations by NASS support domestic crop estimating programs for all major commodities. Promising studies are underway to develop models relating weather parameters and associated variables to corn ear weight and wheat head weight. Previous efforts to develop models for short-term forecasting have had only limited success. Research will continue in this area with the expectation that the relationships between weather variables and crop yield will improve as better plant process models become available.

A NASS program explores the use of satellite and weather data for assessing crop conditions is continuing. A preliminary investigation using polar- orbiting meteorological satellite data showed a good relationship between crop conditions and reflectance data as determined by the agreement between measured and forecast final corn and soybean yields. The crop conditions assessment procedures, based on meteorological satellite data, are being automated and near real-time applications are being explored.

FS research includes efforts to: (1) understand and control forest fire initiation by lightning, (2) improve the translation of mid-range forecast elements to describe forestry conditions, (3) incorporate drought information into management decision-making, and (4) better describe how regional climatic variability affects the use of daily weather information by foresters. The FS long-term monitoring network will provide critical data for use in the GCRP work.

DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR

The Department of the Interior's (DOI) atmospheric science activities are primarily research in nature and historically have been reported through the Subcommittee for Atmospheric Research. The following narrative describes the full range of DOI's meteorological activities.

The Bureau of Land Management (BLM) is one of five Federal Land Management agencies which have centralized wildfire weather operations in the National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) at Boise, Idaho. BLM's Initial Attack Management System (IAMS) provides real-time data access and modeling for the fire management organization. The system enables rapid evaluation, assessment, and decision-making capabilities for the BLM's wildfire responsibilities. The principal IAMS inputs are Remote Automatic Weather Station (RAWS) meteorological data, Automatic Lightning Detection System (ALDS) information, and vegetation, slope, elevation, and terrain data. The real-time data sources are coupled to advanced fire modeling capabilities to facilitate the BLM's fire and resource management objectives.

The RAWS program collects meteorological data from a network of 3 classes of stations located throughout 12 western states including Alaska; the 3 classes denote the permanence of the site and the density and duration of data collection. All data are recovered via the NOAA's GOES system by the BLM's Direct Readout Ground Station (DRGS) located at NIFC. BLM presently owns 359 RAWS systems with about 300 of these being fielded. The network is designed to ultimately reach 359 fielded systems. Completion of the network, as planned, is contingent upon acquiring the personnel to implement and maintain the total number of planned systems.

The BLM's RAWS support facility at NIFC provides a full range of management, maintenance, data, and support services for the BLM and numerous other government agencies. This work is performed under long-term interagency agreements with those agencies having similar equipment and requirements.

The BLM's ALDS covers 11 western states and Alaska. The western U.S. ALDS is comprised of 36 direction finders (DF), providing high detection efficiency coverage of cloud-to-ground activity for 95 percent of the western U.S. The system provides data via a satellite telecommunications system to the BLM's IAMS. Data are also supplied to the National Weather Service, State University of New York (SUNY), New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, and several DOD installations. The Alaska ALDS is comprised of nine DFs which provide the required coverage for Alaska Fire Service needs.

In addition to the meteorological monitoring conducted primarily in support fire management activities, BLM also conducts site-specific climate monitoring at over 200 locations on public lands in 11 western states and Alaska. The operation of these sites ranges from seasonal to annual measurements of precipitation, temperature, soil moisture, and other meteorological parameters necessary to assess local climatic influences. These data are primarily used for natural resources management and planning at the local level.

In 1991, the BLM Global Change Research Program (GCRP) established five monitoring sites in BLM wilderness and wilderness study areas to establish baseline conditions for assessment of long-term ecosystem trends. A total of 20 sites are planned to be established over the initial 5-year period. A standardized monitoring platform will make measurements of climate and atmospheric constituents.

The National Park Service (NPS) monitors air quality and visibility in several national parks and monuments. Gaseous pollutant data are collected on a continuous and integrated 24-hour basis. Surface meteorological data are collected and analyzed for hourly averages. Precipitation chemistry is determined on week-long integrated rainfall samples. Twenty-four average particle concentrations (number, mass, and chemical analyses) are measured twice weekly. Atmospheric light extinction is measured continuously and is satellite telemetered to a central location for analysis.

The NPS also conducts and contracts research to develop and test air quality models to assess long-range transport, chemical transformation, and deposition of air pollutants. These models are used to estimate source contributions to, and to identify source regions responsible for, observed pollutant loadings.

The Bureau of Reclamation (BuRec) activities requiring the collection and use of meteorological data include water scheduling, flood hydrology, irrigation project management, and reservoir operations. They also include projects related to the development of wind and solar energy resources. Multiagency work is also proceeding in projecting potential effects of climate change on western water resources and BuRec operations. The BuRec's weather modification research program has not been funded since 1989 except for reimbursable work.

Currently, the BuRec's HYDROMET system collects data from approximately 400 hydrometeorological data collection platforms (DCP) which transmit data in "real time" through the GOES to the DRGS in Boise, Idaho. AGRIMET is another network of 53 DCPs dedicated to analysis of crop water use and water conservation in the Pacific Northwest. Data collected and products created in Boise are electronically transferred to other BuRec, federal, and state offices.

The U.S. Geological Survey's (USGS) Water Resources Division collects streamflow, precipitation, and other climatological data for a number of projects concerning rainfall/runoff, water quality, and hydrologic processes. Currently, the USGS collects hydrometeorological data from approximately 4,000 remote DCPs. The data are transmitted to Wallops, Virginia, via GOES, and rebroadcast to a domestic communication satellite (DOMSAT). Data are received from the DOMSAT by local readout ground stations (LRGS) procured by the USGS under a 1992 contract. The USGS currently operates 10 LRGSs which provide near real-time data to the USGS's computerized National Water Information System.

The Geologic Division, through the National Geomagnetic Information Center (NGIC) in Golden, Colorado, collects data on temporal variations of the Earth's magnetic field from a global network of over 60 geomagnetic observatories. These observatories (which include 13 operated directly by USGS/NGIC) all belong to the INTERMAGNET program. Under INTERMAGNET, data from the global network of geomagnetic observatories are transmitted in near real time via satellites and computer links (E-mail) to collection and dissemination points called Geomagnetic Information Nodes (GIN). Five GINs are now located in Europe, North America, and Asia.

These data are key inputs to the National Space Environment Forecast and Warning Program and to the new interagency National Space Weather Program, which are coordinated through the OFCM, and are used for nowcasting, forecasting, and modeling of "space weather"--particularly the effects of geomagnetic disturbances. These effects range from satellite computer upsets and early reentry, to disruption of radio communications, degradation of navigation systems, e.g., the Global Positioning System, and outages of power distribution grids. The roles and responsibilities of agencies participating in the National Space Environment and Warning Program are detailed in the National Plan for Space Environment Services and Supporting Research, 1993-1997 (FCM P10-1993), which was prepared by the OFCM Committee for Space Environment Forecasting.

The USGS is continuing a joint research program with NASA to map snowpack water equivalent using satellite passive microwave techniques. Comparisons of data collected by the USDA's Soil Conservation Service Snow Telemetry (SNOTEL) sites, by USGS field teams, and through instrumentation by other agencies, are being made to test the feasibility of making near real-time assessments of snowpack from space.

The USGS also carries out research on past climate change, regional hydrology, the carbon cycle, coastal erosion, volcanic activity, and glaciology. It collects precipitation samples for a number of studies to determine the atmospheric contribution to the chemical constituent loads to runoff and for defining the effect of atmospheric deposition on water quality and the aquatic environment.

The Minerals Management Service's (MMS) Environmental Studies Program gathers offshore environmental data in support of mineral leasing responsibilities. Currently, MMS supports eight data buoys which transmit, via GOES, off the Pacific Coast. Wind data are used in the MMS' Oil Spill Risk Analysis Model to predict effects of potential spills.

The Bureau of Indian Affairs collects atmospheric data to evaluate potentially irrigable Indian Trust lands in the Southwest. The Bureau also shares fire weather data with other federal agencies while participating in fire weather forecasting at the NIFC.

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) Headquarters Weather Support Office has continued to improve NASA's weather support capabilities for both manned and unmanned space launch vehicles. It is expected that these improvements will strengthen and enhance the information provided to the ground-based decision-makers and astronaut observers to insure that NASA achieves the best operational posture for Space Shuttle launches and landings. The goal of the operations program is to provide the specialized meteorological data needed by operational forecasters at Cape Canaveral Air Station of Kennedy Space Center (KSC) and Johnson Space Center to support the Space Shuttle program. The focus is on detecting and forecasting the mesoscale weather events which strongly impact Shuttle ground processing, launches, and landing operations.

The Applied Meteorology Unit (AMU), collocated with the Air Force's Range Weather Operations, provides a facility to evaluate, exploit, and, if warranted, transition new meteorological technology into operations. For instance, the AMU strives to develop techniques and systems to help predict and avoid the impacts of KSC's frequent mesoscale summer thunderstorms which endanger the ground processing, launch, and landing operations of the American Space Program--Space Shuttle, DOD, and commercial. Special attention is given to improving and transitioning mesoscale numerical models. The AMU functions under a joint NASA, Air Force, and National Weather Service (NWS) Memorandum of Agreement.

Forecasts and observations for KSC are provided by Air Force meteorologists and contractors. KSC cost shares with the Air Force the expense of operating and maintaining (O&M) the Eastern Range's extensive meteorological network--KSC contributes 40 percent. KSC funds O&M of the Doppler Radar Wind Profiler (DRWP) and Lightning Detection and Ranging (LDAR) systems.

Further Space Shuttle budget decreases may require reductions in the NASA operational budget. Reduction magnitude and specific items affected will not be known for several months. Technology transition and study items would most likely be impacted. KSC will seek FY 1997 cost-sharing agreements with other users for O&M of KSC's (a) LDAR system and (b) 50 MHz DRWP. The Air Force is considering funding additional labor hours during FY 1996 to further develop, transition and evaluate a toxic diffusion prediction system. A major FY 1996-1997 initiative under contract is to replace the meteorological data display/analysis/distribution system which is becoming obsolete. The Air Force presently plans to pay most of the costs.

Supporting Research

The overall goal of the NASA's Mission to Planet Earth (MTPE) program is to understand the total Earth system and the effects of natural and human-induced changes on the global environment. To preserve and improve the Earth's environment for future generations, people around the world need to base policies and decisions on the strongest possible scientific understanding. The vantage point of space provides information about the Earth's land, atmosphere, ice, oceans, and biota that is obtainable in no other way. In concert with the global research community, the MTPE program is utilizing space to lead the development of knowledge required to support the complex national and international environmental policy decisions that lie ahead. The MTPE Earth Observing System (EOS) will establish the foundation for a new, innovative approach to global environmental monitoring and climate prediction. The outcome of MTPE's policy-relevant, global environmental science focus will help to insure a strategic advantage for American enterprise.

The scientific discipline associated with MTPE's activities is Earth system science which has strong elements in the atmospheric, oceanic, hydrological, ecological, and solid Earth sciences but integrates them in a way that the full-range of couplings in the Earth system can be addressed. Earth system science is a young discipline, and MTPE investigators and programs make a significant contribution to its emergence as a field of scientific endeavor. The collection of global data to characterize the Earth system is a cornerstone of the MTPE program. Comprehensive measurements are being made covering the land, atmosphere, ice, bodies of water, and biota. Data must be collected for extended periods of time due to the long time constants associated with the changing Earth system. Future data will be integrated with previously obtained data to enable study of the long-term evolution of the Earth system. The MTPE program is strongly committed to analysis and interpretation of archived data. Data gathering and analysis will be accompanied by theoretical and modeling efforts which provide the framework for the interpretation of data and for quantitatively testing our understanding of how the Earth system works.

The MTPE program develops Earth observing spacecraft and instruments, acquires and analyzes data, and disseminates these data, information, and scientific understanding throughout the world. Data, information, and knowledge from the MTPE program form the basis for decision-making on complex, environmental policies. NASA brings to the field of Earth system science the ability to observe the Earth globally from space. The MTPE program provides the space-based assets, complimentary aircraft, balloons and in-situ capabilities, and the scientific capabilities to interpret the data for modeling, prediction, and assessment needs. Resultant data, information, and scientific understanding must be provided to all classes of users, including but not limited to the Earth science community. Policy makers, environmental decision-makers and resource managers, industrial planners, social scientists and the general academic community, educators, and interested individuals must have effective access to Earth science data and ideas so that difficult decisions about managing the global environment can be made on an informed basis.

MTPE products form the basis for public education as well as for training future generations of scientists and engineers. Communication to the general public is important so that people can effectively participate in the national decision-making process and can understand the complex economic and environmental tradeoffs that may be required. Training of future generations of Earth scientists, fully representing the diversity of the United States is inspired and facilitated by the data and ideas developed by the MTPE.

The MTPE program contributes directly to American economic growth and competitiveness through the scientific products we deliver as well as by developing and infusing spacecraft instrument and information system technologies to enable new scientific investigations. Methods used by MTPE to obtain, interpret, and distribute Earth system data and information must be cost-effective and be at the cutting edge of science and technology. The MTPE utilizes advanced technology that is currently available and works to develop and infuse needed new technologies. MTPE investigators work to develop technologies and products that have multiple uses including those which will help ensure continued economic competitiveness for the United States. People are benefiting today from MTPE products. This includes farmers, foresters, fishermen, land-use managers, etc., who currently utilize the weather prediction and remote-sensing capabilities. Global environment is playing an increasing role in global business. Leading the international effort on global environment helps ensure a level playing field for enterprise. The MTPE program includes, on a fully reimbursable basis, technical and procurement support for the Nation's civilian weather satellite system on behalf of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

The MTPE program consists of the EOS, the EOS Data Information System (EOSDIS), a series of Earth probe satellites, additional payloads flown on the Space Shuttle, specialized aircraft and balloons, and a focused scientific investigation program that provides the scientific understanding necessary to accomplish the MTPE goals.

During 1995, NASA conducted a comprehensive review of the entire MTPE enterprise. The goal was to adopt an evolutionary approach to program planning which would enable: (1) a focus on near-term science and associated applications; (2) explicit provision for new technology infusion; (3) reduction in life-cycle cost of the EOS program; (4) provision of new science opportunities through smaller, quicker, and less expensive missions; and (5) closer participation with other federal agencies (especially NOAA), commercial firms, and international partners.

The result of this review is an EOS which is lower in life-cycle cost, more flexible in implementation, and of greater utility to the science and commercial communities. We continue to refine this plan and seek the advice of the National Academy of Sciences (NAS) and other external groups as we progress. Our basic approach has been endorsed by the NAS Board on Sustainable Development.

Upcoming activities over the next 2 years in the MTPE program include, in the Earth probes program, launch of the first Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) Earth probe in FY 1996, launch of the NASA Scatterometer and TOMS instrument on the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing System (ADEOS) spacecraft in FY 1996, and launch of the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) in early FY 1998. The mission operations and data analysis program within MTPE will begin operations of the Earth probe satellites and processing of the data received from them in addition to maintaining activities for currently orbiting satellites, including TOPEX/Poseidon and UARS and recently completed space shuttle missions. The instrument and payloads development program will be focused on Shuttle Imaging Radar C (SIR-C) and Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS-3) post-mission activities. Within the EOS, preliminary design review will be held for PM-1 in FY 1997. Critical design reviews will be held for the Sea Winds spacecraft and Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment (SAGE-III) in FY 1996. Instruments for AM 1 and Landsat 7 will be delivered in FY 1997. The EOSDIS will release Version 1 in FY 1997 and prepare for the release of Version 2.

The overall goal of the EOS is to advance the understanding of the entire Earth system on a global scale by improving our knowledge of the components of the system, the interactions between them, and how the Earth system is changing. The EOS data will be used to study the atmosphere, oceans, cryosphere, biosphere, land surface, and solid Earth, particularly as their interrelationships are manifested in the flow of energy and in the cycling of water and other chemicals through the Earth system.

The EOS program mission goals are: (1) to create an integrated, scientific observing system emphasizing climate change that will enable multi-disciplinary study of the Earth's critical, life-enabling, interrelated processes; (2) to develop a comprehensive data and information system, including a data retrieval and processing system; (3) to serve the needs of scientists performing an integrated multidisciplinary study of planet Earth and to make MTPE data and information publicly available; and (4) to acquire and assemble a global database for remote-sensing measurements from space over a decade or more to enable definitive and conclusive studies of Earth system attributes.

The EOS will contribute directly to accomplishing the goal of understanding global climate by providing a combination of observations made by scientific instruments which will be integrated with the EOS spacecraft and the data received, archived, processed, and distributed by the EOSDIS. The selection of scientific priorities and data products responds directly to the GCRP global change science priorities and the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's (IPCC) assessment of the scientific uncertainty associated with global change.

The three main EOS spacecraft that will support observations by the scientific instruments include the morning (AM), afternoon (PM), and Chemistry series. Beginning in 1998, 2000, and 2002 respectively, a satellite in each series will be flown for a period of 6 years in order to obtain, at a minimum, a data set that will span 15 years. Additional observations will be provided by the Landsat-7 mission in 1998. Data continuity for the Landsat program will be maintained by flying an advanced technology Landsat instrument on the AM-2 mission in 2004.

The EOS AM 1 will be launched in June 1998. The global climate change research emphasized by the AM instrument data set will include cloud physics, atmospheric radiation properties, and terrestrial and oceanic characteristics. Because the AM series primarily observes terrestrial surface features, a morning equatorial crossing time is preferred to minimize cloud cover over land. The primary contractors associated with the program are Lockheed Martin Astro Space for the AM-1 spacecraft, Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center for the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (MODIS) instrument, TRW for the Clouds and Earth's Radiant Energy System (CERES) instrument, (the instrument will also be flown on the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (TRMM) in 1997 and PM Series spacecraft and as a flight of opportunity), and Lockheed Martin Commercial Launch Services for the AM-1 Atlas Centaur/IIAS launch service. The Multi-Angle Imaging Spectrometer (MISR) instrument is being built in-house at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). The Japanese will provide the Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) instrument; the Canadians will provide the Measurement of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) instrument for the AM-1 spacecraft. The Earth Observing Scanning Polarimeter (EOSP) instrument for AM-2 will be built in-house at Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC), Greenbelt, Maryland.

The research focus of the PM series is atmospheric temperatures and humidity profiles, clouds, precipitation, and radiative balance; terrestrial snow and sea ice; sea-surface temperature and ocean productivity; soil moisture; and the improvement of numerical weather prediction. With the emphasis of the instrument complement being cloud formation, precipitation, and radiative properties, an afternoon equatorial crossing is more suitable for acquiring the data. The primary contractors associated with the program are TRW for the common spacecraft to be used for PM-1 and Chemistry-1; Loral Infrared and Imaging Systems (LIRIS) and JPL for the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) instrument; and Aerojet General Corporation for the Advanced Microwave Sounding Unit (AMSU-A) instrument. We anticipate that the Japanese will be providing the Advanced Microwave Scanner Radiation (AMSR) instrument for the PM-1 spacecraft. We are currently negotiating with Brazil for provision of the Microwave Humidity Sounder (MHS).

With the launch in 1998 of Landsat 7, substantially cloud-free, sun-lit land surface imagery for detecting and characterizing regional and global change will continue. The primary contractors are Lockheed Martin Astro Space for the Landsat-7 spacecraft, Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center for the Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus (ETM+) and McDonnell Douglas for the Landsat-7 Delta 2 launch service. The Landsat 7 estimate includes funding for ground segment development. NOAA will be responsible for operating the satellite and the United States Geological Survey (USGS) will archive the data.

The AIRS, AMSU, CERES, and MODIS PM-1 instruments remain on schedule for a December 2000 launch. All issues identified in the January AIRS PDR were closed out by the end of FY 1995, and the CDR is scheduled for February 1997. The AMSU PDR was completed in September 1994. Because the build of AMSU instruments for the operational weather satellites was added to the EOS AMSU contract, the AMSU CDR was delayed from mid-FY 1995 to April 1996. Development of the CERES and MODIS instruments for PM 1 are proceeding on schedule in synchronization with the AM 1 program.

The search for an alternative to the MHS instrument, which was originally to be provided by EUMETSAT, is continuing. The Brazilian space agency is currently exploring partnership arrangements for providing an MHS instrument.

The European Space Agency indicated recently that it would not be able to commit to providing a Multifrequency Imaging Microwave Radiometer (MIMR) instrument for the PM-1 spacecraft. Therefore, NASA is pursuing Japan's offer to provide an AMSR instrument. The Japanese engineers and the PM-1 project at GSFC are performing accommodation studies. An in-house build of a PM Microwave Imager is being evaluated as a backup; although this effort will be dropped if an agreement with the Japanese on AMSR can be implemented.

Because of the stop work order on TRW, the PM-1 spacecraft System Concept Review has been delayed. The CDR for the PM-1 AMSU instrument will be held the third quarter of FY 1996. The AIRS and AMSR CDR's are scheduled for FY 1997 and FY 1998, respectively. The CDR's for CERES and MODIS have already been completed. The PM-1 flight instruments (AIRS, AMSU, AMSR, CERES, and MODIS) will be in various stages of fabrication, assembly, integration, and testing throughout FY 1996.

Integration and testing of the AIRS engineering model will begin in FY 1997 with delivery scheduled for the fourth quarter of FY 1997. Fabrication and assembly of the AIRS proto-flight model will continue throughout FY 1997. Fabrication and assembly of the remaining PM-1 flight instruments (AMSU, AMSR, CERES, and MODIS) will be completed in FY 1997; integration and testing phase will also begin in FY 1997.

The goals for the EOSDIS are: (a) the development and operation of a highly integrated system which can produce the data and information products from the EOS, (b) preserve these and all other MTPE environmental observations for continuing use, and (c) make all these data and information easily available for use by the research, education, and government agencies and all those who can benefit from them in making economic and policy decisions. The EOSDIS is critical to achieving the goals of MTPE by enabling the public to benefit fully from increased understanding and observations of the environment.

The EOSDIS will be based on an evolutionary design to enable adaptation to changes in user needs and technology. The design is also modular allowing the replacement of individual components without costly overall system changes or disruptions in service. NASA is making extensive use of prototypes to assure that EOSDIS will effectively meet the needs of the satellites and users. A limited amount of technology development and adaptation is focused specifically on meeting EOSDIS evolutionary needs while relying on other programs at NASA and other agencies to fund needed technology development efforts of a more generic nature. An initial version of the system, implemented at nine Distributed Active Archive Centers and through cooperative efforts with NOAA, USGS, and international partner space agencies became operational in 1994. Major development of the next two versions of the system are under way to prepare for the first flights of EOS instruments on TRMM in 1997, as well as the EOS AM-1 and Landsat 7 missions in 1998, to improve service to users and incorporate new technologies.

The Earth probes program is the component of MTPE that addresses specific, highly focused mission requirements in Earth science research. The program was designed to have the flexibility to take advantage of unique opportunities presented by international cooperative efforts or technical innovation, and to complement the EOS by providing the ability to investigate processes that require special orbits or have unique requirements. The currently approved Earth probes are TOMS, NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT), TRMM, and the Earth System Science Pathfinders (ESSP).

Because winds are a critical factor in determining regional weather patterns and global climate, NSCAT has been developed to measure near-surface wind direction and speed over the global oceans every 2 days under all weather and cloud conditions. The NSCAT data will be useful for both oceanography and meteorology and will permit the first global study of the influence of winds on ocean circulation. NSCAT will also provide data on the effects of the oceans on the atmosphere and improved marine forecasting of winds and waves. JPL is the lead center for this program, and the Harris Corporation is the main contractor for the instrument development.

When NSCAT was first initiated in October 1984, it was planned for launch aboard the Navy Remote Sensing Satellite (N-ROSS). After final cancellation of N-ROSS in March 1988, NSCAT was selected in August 1989, for flight on the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing System (ADEOS). Since a majority of the instrument design was completed during the period that NSCAT was to fly on N-ROSS, in the past few years, the program has centered on making design changes to the instrument so that it can be accommodated on the ADEOS spacecraft and on completing the instrument. The NSCAT launch is now planned for August 1996. The launch of the Japanese ADEOS spacecraft was slipped from February 1996 when the Japanese experienced anomalies with the spacecraft during integration and testing.

The scientific objectives of the TOMS program are to measure the long term changes in total ozone and to verify the chemical models of the stratosphere used to predict future trends. The TOMS flights build on the experience that began in 1978 with the launch of a TOMS instrument (Flight Model 1) on Nimbus-7 and continues with the TOMS instrument (Flight Model 2) on the Russian Meteor-3, launched in 1991. As with the earlier developments, GSFC has the responsibility for flight project development, and post-launch mission operations and data analysis. Prime contractors are Orbital Sciences Corporation for the TOMS instruments and Pegasus launch services; TRW for the TOMS Earth Probes spacecraft. The TOMS program consists of a set of instruments (Flight Models 3, 4, and 5, designated FM-3, FM-4, and FM-5) and one spacecraft for launch on a Pegasus expendable launch vehicle in mid-FY 1996 (FM-3). The FM-4 is planned for launch on the Japanese ADEOS satellite in August 1996. The FM-5 was completed in 1995 and is planned for a cooperative mission with Russia in 2000.

The latent heat released during precipitation is a significant factor in the large-scale computer models used to predict weather and climate change, yet two-thirds of the global rainfall occurs over the tropics where ground-based rain measurements are scarce. The TRMM objective is to obtain a minimum of three years of climatologically significant observations of tropical rainfall. In addition, TRMM will provide precise estimates of the vertical distribution of latent heat in the atmosphere. The TRMM data will be used to understand the ocean-atmosphere coupling, especially in the development of El Niño events which form in the tropics but effects of which are felt globally-- causing floods in some areas and droughts in others. GSFC has the responsibility for flight project development, and post-launch mission operations and data analysis. The contractors for the instruments are Hughes Santa Barbara Research Center for the Visible and Infrared Scanner (VIRS) and Hughes Space and Communications for the TRMM Microwave Imager (TMI).

The Japanese space agency is an active partner with all three Earth probes and provides the ADEOS spacecraft and H-II launch vehicle for the TOMS FM-4 and NSCAT as well as the Precipitation Radar instrument and H-II launch vehicle for TRMM. Russia will also be a critical partner for the last of the three TOMS Earth Probes missions and provide the Meteor-3 spacecraft and launch vehicle.

The ESSP is a science-driven program intended to identify and develop small satellite missions to accomplish scientific objectives in response to national and international research priorities not addressed by current programs. ESSP will provide periodic "windows of opportunity" to accommodate new scientific priorities and infuse new scientific participation into the MTPE program. By launching ESSP missions on a frequent, regular basis, NASA will provide a mechanism by which pressing questions in Earth system science may be addressed in a timely fashion and, thereby, permit a continual improvement in our understanding of the Earth system and the processes that affect it.

The ESSP first Announcement of Opportunity (AO) is being formulated with the following programmatic guidelines. The first two ESSP missions will be: focused on high-priority Earth system science research, limited to a total mission life cycle cost from NASA of $120 million, managed by the principal investigator as the single point of contact accountable for total mission implementation and success, developed in less than 36 months from development authority to proceed, and compatible with EOSDIS standards including the immediate release of mission data to the scientific community.

The goal of Applied Research and Data Analysis is to advance our understanding of the global climate environment, the vulnerability of the environment to both human and natural forces of change, and the provision of numerical models and other tools necessary for understanding global climate change.

The applied research and data analysis program is divided into two major components: (1) MTPE Science and (2) Operations, Data Retrieval, and Storage. The activities that support MTPE science include research and analysis, EOS science, and airborne science and applications. Operations, data retrieval, and storage consist of several independent activities responsible for the operation of currently functioning spacecraft and flight instruments, the purchase and management of scientific data, and the provision of computing infrastructure. Each of the major components of applied research and data analysis has its own set of goals, strategies for achieving the goals, performance measures, and accomplishments and plans.

The goal for the MTPE science program is to contribute interdisciplinary scientific understanding of the Earth system and the effects of humankind on the global environment. Major emphasis is placed on providing early warning and fast response to global environmental changes which pose risks to society. The science program also provides the analysis and integration of critical data and models needed for national and international assessments. MTPE Earth system science activities are essential to the design of future operational observing systems and global sustainable development strategies.

The research and analysis science program is essential to the discovery of new concepts and to the design of future missions. The primary mode of research coordination occurs through the GCRP, the Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) Subcommittee on Global Change Research, and the various boards and committees at the National Academy of Sciences. The type of basic research supported by research and analysis is exemplified by the work of Professors Rowland and Molina who received the 1995 Nobel Prize in chemistry for studies of stratospheric ozone. They made their original discoveries as a result of work supported by research and analysis funding.

The strategy of interdisciplinary research is to increase scientific understanding of the global environment and its vulnerability to both human and natural forces of change (e.g., pollution, climate variability, deforestation). EOS Interdisciplinary science consists of both focused research centered around a specific Earth science data set and interdisciplinary research geared toward a broader probe into Earth science systemic functions. The quality of the data utilized is monitored by the scientists at Interdisciplinary Instrument Computing Facilities and the research is supplemented by graduate student participation in the EOS science fellowship program. Modeling and data analysis research will synthesize existing environmental data, build component models, and conduct tests and evaluations of model progress. This approach will provide well-documented and tested disciplinary models and data sets to the interdisciplinary science program where integration into global biogeochemical and Earth system models occurs. The process studies program will help Earth scientists understand and predict global change through planning and support of laboratory and field studies, advanced instrument development, satellite and in-situ data analysis, and the development of process-scale models and numerical tools to aid in diagnosing and predicting natural and human-induced global environmental change. The outcomes of this research will be essential to United States leadership in designing sustainable development strategies for the 21st century.

There are currently over 1,700 scientific activities being funded under the Research and Analysis Program. Approximately 900 are carried out by universities, 100 by national research laboratories, and 700 by the federal government. The distribution of the activities encompasses 45 of the 50 states.

The airborne science program funds operations of two ER-2's, a DC-8, and a C-130. In FY 1997, the C-130 aircraft will no longer be part of the airborne program. If a C-130 is needed to support Earth science investigations, another NASA C-130 may be used on an as needed basis. The program also funds operation and support of a core of remote sensing instruments and a facility for analyzing and calibrating data from those instruments. The specially modified aircraft serve as test beds for newly developed instrumentation and their algorithms prior to launch by ELV's or the Shuttle. The instrumented aircraft provide remotely sensed and insitu data for many Earth science research and analysis field campaigns, including stratospheric ozone, tropospheric chemistry, and ecological studies throughout the world. The ER-2 aircraft, in particular, are unique in that they are the highest flying subsonic civilian research aircraft and were key in collecting insitu data for our understanding of ozone depletion and stratospheric transport mechanisms.

In FY 1997, NASA will initiate a data purchase program designed to acquire from commercial sources data sets not otherwise available that are necessary to accomplish the broad research goals of Earth system science. The current generation of data purchase to begin in FY 1997 derives from the experience of the Optical Transient Detector and Sea Star/Ocean Color. The current generation data purchase contract will be executed in FY 1997 after broad agency competition. The budget authority will be liquidated only as acceptable data are delivered. Data product generation, data archival, science analysis, and all other NASA requirements are included in other elements of the MTPE budget.

In FY 1997, NASA will initiate a data purchase program designed to acquire data sets rather than hardware to produce the data from commercial sources. Such innovative methods of procurement were suggested in the Vice President's National Performance Review. The budget authority for the data sets purchased will be liquidated only as acceptable data are delivered, and the proposed contract will be executed with FY 1997 funds only after broad agency competition.

An international intercomparison and assessment of global vegetation models was conducted in the summer 1995. The summary report of results of the assessment was delivered in December 1995. Data from the Boreal Ecosystem-Atmosphere Study (BOREAS) will be analyzed and assessed to improve climate and weather models and to determine whether the study region is a net source or sink of carbon and methane. The BOREAS results will also improve ecological models of the boreal forest biome needed for sustainable forestry. EOS investigators will utilize the data gathered in EOSDIS to perform integrated interdisciplinary studies of the Earth to enhance the capability to predict global climate change. The MTPE interdisciplinary science education strategy will continue to focus on sponsoring global change fellowships for highly qualified graduate students at U.S. universities. In FY 1996, approximately 160 graduate students will be funded under the EOS Interdisciplinary Science Fellowship Program.

The Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer will be used in FY 1997 for land imaging and applications research in preparation for the Small Spacecraft Technology Initiative Lewis mission; data collected by the Lewis spacecraft will be used to classify surface land cover and vegetation types. In FY 1996, we will complete the Multi-center Airborne Coherent Atmospheric Wind Sensor development and science demonstration flights. The LIDAR In-Space Technology Experiment data will be delivered to the Langley Research Center Distributed Active Archive Center for access by the scientific community. A science data workshop will be held with scientific results to be published in the open scientific literature by FY 1997. A TOPEX/Poseidon mission review was held in November 1995. The remarkable accomplishments of the TOPEX/Poseidon, specifically the capability for measuring ocean topography, are significantly improving the understanding of ocean circulation and ocean-climate interactions.

A workshop involving the participating investigators in the interdisciplinary aerosol research program was convened in the fall of 1995. A summary assessment of the impact of aerosols on atmosphere chemistry and climate will be completed and released to the public by August 1996. Surface Radiation Budget (SRB) data will be provided to the International Satellite Land Surface Climatology Project Pathfinder, Global Energy and Water Cycle Experiment and scientific community in FY 1997. The global short-wave and long-wave SRB data sets (covering the period 1992 to 1995) will be extended to 1996. Validations of the satellite-based algorithms using reliable ground truth data, including the global Baseline Surface Radiation Network and Global Energy Budget Archive data sets, will be completed in FY 1997 and results will be published in the open literature. The current International Satellite Cloud Climatology Project (ISCCP) will be extended from the current 1983-1992 interval to the year 2000. The interval 1982-1995 will be completed by FY 1997. The entire ISCCP climatology will be recalculated in FY 1996 using the improved version 2.0 algorithm. A World Climate Research Program biannual ISCCP review workshop will be conducted. The results of the Smoke, Clouds, and Radiation (SCAR)-A (Atlantic), SCAR-C (California), SCAR-B (Brazil) campaigns will be presented in a series of science data workshops and science conferences and the results will be published in the scientific literature beginning in FY 1997. The Pacific Exploratory Mission-Central field campaign will be completed by October 1996. This field campaign will explore fundamental atmospheric chemical processes in the eastern tropical Pacific which is considered to be a "clean" air region.

Savings will be achieved in FY 1997 due to policy changes suggested by the NASA Zero Base Review. One change in policy is that support contractors will no longer perform in-house science, research, and engineering.

The scientific issues of concern to MTPE are among the most complex and most policy relevant of any major scientific research program. The results of MTPE science are critical to the development of sound U.S. and global environmental policy necessary for long-term sustainable development. MTPE Science is focused on the following priorities: Atmospheric Ozone, Seasonal-to-Interannual Climate Prediction, Long-term Climate Variability, Land Cover Change, and Natural Hazards. (See Table D.1)

The Operations, Data Retrieval and Storage (ODRS) program provides the data and data products from EOS precursor missions, including UARS, TOPEX, TOMS, and future missions, such as NSCAT and TRMM, required to understand the total Earth system and the effects of humans on the global environment. The goals of the NASA High Performance Computing and Communications (HPCC) program are to accelerate the development, application, and transfer of high performance computing technologies to meet the engineering and science needs of the U.S. aeronautics, Earth science, and space science communities and to accelerate the implementation of a National Information Infrastructure.

The ODRS program supports the observations and data management portion of the activities, including process research, integrated modeling and prediction, and assessments that together produce a predictive understanding of the Earth system. The ODRS program will achieve its goals through the Mission Operations and Data Analysis (MO & DA) and information systems. The data and data products from the ODRS program have or will migrate to the EOSDIS.

The MO&DA program objectives are to acquire, process, and archive long-term data sets and validated data products. These data sets support global change research in atmospheric ozone and trace chemical species, the Earth's radiation budget, aerosols, sea ice, land surface properties, and ocean circulation and biology. Funding provides for operating spacecraft, such as UARS, TOPEX, and Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS), and for processing of acquired data.

The MTPE MO&DA program has been structured to provide a balanced system of high performance computers, mass storage systems, workstations and appropriate network connectivity between researchers and components of the system. A major portion of the program funding supports operations of the NASA Center for Computational Sciences, a supercomputing center at GSFC. A full range of computational services are provided to a community of approximately 1,400 users from all disciplines of Earth and space sciences. Users of the supercomputer complex select representatives to an advisory committee who are integrally involved in strategic planning for the evolution of the complex. They provide feedback on user satisfaction with services provided and help establish priorities for service and capacity upgrades. Offsite NASA-sponsored users comprise some 25 percent of the total. The program has also been structured to take advantage of new technology as it reaches production maturity. The program monitors and participates in advanced technology programs, such as the HPCC program and National Science Foundation's Gigabit Testbed programs. Program elements at GSFC and the JPL are focused on providing early access to emerging technologies for the Earth and space science communities. The early access to new technology provides the program with the opportunity to influence vendors and system developers on issues unique to the Earth and space science researchers, such as data intensive computation and algorithm development. Early access also prepares a subset of the research community to make needed changes in research methodology to exploit the new technologies and to champion promising technologies to their colleagues and peers.

Data has been acquired, processed, disseminated, and archived to meet mission requirements for user availability of timely and accurate data products for global and/or regional monitoring purposes from all operational spacecraft and instruments. The current emphasis on global modeling in support of policy decision on such matters as the impact of deforestation, ozone depletion, and environmental quality worldwide has led to the acquisition and manipulation of unprecedented amounts of environ-mental data. The accompanying computational demand has led to a doubling of production computing capacity and quadrupling of mass storage capacity in the last two fiscal years.

In the MO & DA program, responsibility for assigned missions is assumed 30 days after launch. Data are acquired, processed, disseminated, and archived to meet mission requirements for user availability of timely and accurate data products. Additional missions supported will be those scheduled for launch in 1996 (TOMS, NSCAT, and Sea Star), as well as the inauguration of data receipt from ERS-2 and RadarSat at the ASF. The MTPE information systems program will continue to provide a balanced computational environment for NASA science researchers primarily through facilities housed at GSFC and the JPL. Projected demands have led to the establishment of new partnerships with other agencies (i.e. National Security Agency, National Science Foundation, and Department of Energy) and vendors (i.e., International Business Machines, Cray Research, and Convex) to seek solutions to production-related problems in emerging computational environments. SEDAC is now on-line with Internet access and providing limited data products to the research community and the public.

User requirements will be met in 1996 and 1997 by continuing operations of on-orbit spacecraft and instruments, including the UARS, TOPEX, and ERBS missions; continuing support of the SBUV/2 sensor and processing of data from the SSBUV; and continuing receipt of ERS-1 and JERS-1 data at the Alaska SAR Facility. Missions to be supported that are scheduled for launch include the NSCAT and TOMS on ADEOS, TOMS Earth probe, and TRMM.

The measurements to be made by these and other future MTPE missions as well as current on-orbit missions provide data products that are used extensively in the MTPE science program. The program encompasses over 1,700 scientific activities at universities, research laboratories, and government research organizations. These activities are providing an ever increasing scientific understanding of global environment and the effects of natural and human sources of change.

High Performance Computing and Communications (HPCC) - Earth and Space Sciences

The NASA HPCC program consists of four vertically integrated projects. These projects are: Computational Aeroscience, Earth and Space Sciences, Remote Exploration and Experimentation, and Information Infrastructure Technology and Applications (IITA). The ITTA Project focuses on providing the technology base and applications to accelerate the implementation of the National Information Infrastructure.

The implementation of the NASA HPCC program is mainly through coordinated activities at NASA field centers. The Earth and Space Sciences project, lead by GSFC, will work in close partnership with industry, academia, and government. The project used the NASA Research Announcement process to select 8 Product Improvement teams and 21 grand challenge investigations. IITA Remote Sensing Databases project uses remote sensing databases developed by NASA and other federally-funded agencies to expand the application outreach of its programs to traditionally unserved communities. The Internet is used as the primary means of providing access to and distribution of science data and images and value-added products of the data and images.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY

The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for working with state, local, and other federal government agencies to provide user-appropriate and scientifically credible air quality meteorological programs to support regulatory applications. Applied research and meteorological support is furnished primarily by EPA's National Exposure Research Laboratory in Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, through an interagency agreement with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), which provides approximately 50 research meteorologists to the EPA.

Meteorological support to the EPA Office of Research and Development, the EPA Office of Air and Radiation, the EPA regional offices, and to state and local agencies includes: (1) development and application of air quality dispersion models for pollution control, direct and indirect exposure assessments, and strategy creation; (2) preparation and performance of dispersion studies and air quality model evaluations; and (3) review of meteorological aspects of environmental impact statements, state implementation plans, and variance requests. Meteorological expertise and guidance are also provided for the air quality standard, modeling guideline, and policy development activities of the EPA.

In light of the 1990 Amendments to the Clean Air Act, air quality models and the manner in which they are used are expected to evolve considerably over the next few years. In the area of pollutant deposition, the evaluation of nitrogen and oxidant chemistry, in addition to sulfur chemistry, will clarify the role of model formulation, cloud processes, radiative transfer, and surface/vertical exchange in air quality model predictions, along with development of a better understanding of model predictions relative to control strategy assessment. Further development and evaluation of existing air quality models will take place to accommodate the inter-pollutant effects resulting from the variety of control programs that are now or will be in place. These inter-pollutant effects include trade-offs among controls on ozone, sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds, as well as developing predictable methods of forecasting the impacts on various measures of air quality.

With respect to inhalable particulate model development, dispersion models are being enhanced to accurately predict aerosol growth from precursors over regional and local transport distances. To assist in the evaluation of the contribution of various sources to regional air degradation, inert tracer and tagged species numerical models are being developed. These models will introduce separate calculations for inert or reactive chemical species emitted from a particular source or region. The calculations will proceed to simulate transport and transformation to a receptor point, where the contribution of the particular source could be isolated.

With respect to oxidant air quality modeling, the role of biogenic volatile organic compounds, rural nitrogen oxides, and vertical transport will be elucidated. A better understanding will be developed of the fundamental aspects of the ozone nonattainment problem such as differences in urban and rural rates of and/or sources of photochemical production and the interaction through transport of these ozone precursors. Much of this research will be performed under the program entitled North American Research Strategy on Tropospheric Ozone (NARSTO).

Atmospheric research in the areas of climate and climate change includes ozone distribution in the global troposphere, the relationship between that ozone distribution and climate (including temporal and spatial aspects), and regional climate studies addressing the interaction of climate with the biosphere. The climatology program involves both analytical and statistical climatology as well as support for regional-scale climate model development. Climate change issues and their feedbacks with the biosphere are being stressed.

Research in human exposure modeling includes microenvironmental monitoring and modeling, and development of exposure assessment tools. Microenvironmental algorithms are being developed based on field data to predict air quality in buildings, attached garages, and street canyons. These improved algorithms are then incorporated into microenviron-mental simulation models for conducting human exposure assessments within enclosed spaces in which specific human activities occur.

In addition to these major areas, dispersion models for inert, reactive, and toxic pollutants are under development and evaluation on all temporal and spatial scales, e.g., indoor, urban, complex terrain, mesoscale, and regional. Other efforts include construction and application of air pollution climatologies, modeling of agricultural pesticide spray drift and of fugitive particles from surface coal mines; modeling of trace metal deposition to the Great Lakes, nutrient deposition to Chesapeake Bay, and mercury deposition to the Florida Everglades; determination and description of pollutant effects on atmospheric parameters; and conversely, determination of meteorological effects on air quality. Measurement data obtained during field programs and from wind tunnel and water channel/ towing tank experiments in the EPA Fluid Modeling Facility will be used to continue development and evaluation of these models in the FY 1997-1998 period, along with developing models for pollutant dispersion around natural and manmade obstacles.

EPA participation in the interagency HPCC program is enabling increased efficiency in air quality meteorological modeling through research on parallel implementation of the Mesoscale Meteorological Model (MM5), with the subsequent transfer of these achieved efficiencies to the user community. The HPCC Program is also developing a flexible environmental modeling and decision support tool (Models-3) to deal with multiple scales (urban to regional) and multiple pollutants simultaneously, thus facilitating a more comprehensive and cost-effective approach to related single-stressor and multi-stressor ecosystem problems. Models-3 provides a framework to support the constant evolution of environmental models to handle more complex issues, such as fine particulate, visibility, toxic pollutants, and multimedia (air and water) environ-mental assessments.

The EPA is a participant in the United States Weather Research Program (USWRP), mainly by providing research-in-kind in the area of meteorological simulation modeling on local, meso, and regional spatial scales for pollutants from fossil-fueled power plants, vehicle exhausts, and other emissions sources. The detailed understanding and modeling of the mesoscale circulations that control the atmospheric dispersal of these pollutants will also be applied to coping with accidental releases of toxic or radioactive materials.

The EPA also maintains relations with foreign countries to promote exchange of research meteorologists and research results pertaining to meteorological aspects of air pollution. One of the most active areas of cooperative research is with Russia under the 1972 Nixon-Podgorny Agreement forming the US/USSR Joint Committee on Cooperation in the Field of Environmental Protection and under the 1993 Gore/Chernomyrdin Agreement forming the US/Russia Commission on Economic and Technical Cooperation. Other agreements are in place with Canada, Japan, China, Mexico, and several European countries.

DEPARTMENT OF STATE

The Department of State (DOS) plays an active role in international climate/meteorological policy making as a result of the growing worldwide concern with global environmental issues, including the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and global warming. The role of DOS has principally revolved around preparation and negotiation of the United States position in three fora: (1) the Conference of the Parties to the Vienna Convention and its Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer, (2) the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); and (3) negotiation under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.

Stratospheric ozone depletion has been recognized as a critical health and environmental problem for more than a decade. Under DOS leadership, the United States worked to negotiate international agreements to phase-out ozone-depleting substances, which should lead to a recovery of the ozone layer in the next century. To date, these treaties have been signed and ratified by more than 130 countries (including the United States), representing 99 percent of the world's production of ozone depleting substances.

The IPCC, which is jointly sponsored by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) and the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), held its first session in 1988. This organization serves as a government forum to assess the state of scientific, technical, and economic information regarding climate change. The IPCC is currently organized in three working groups, examining: (1) the state of the science; (2) impacts and possible response strategies, including mitigation and adaptation; and (3) economics and other cross-cutting issues. The IPCC released its first assessment report in 1990; supplementary reports were released in 1992 and 1994. A full second assessment report from each of the working groups was scheduled for publication in late 1995.

The Framework Convention on Climate Change was negotiated beginning February 1991; the convention was open for signature in Rio de Janeiro at the Earth Summit in June 1992. As of April 1995, it had been ratified by 129 countries, including the United States. The first meeting of the Conference of the Parties to the Convention was held in Berlin in March/April 1995. The convention calls for all countries to develop inventories of their emissions and sinks of greenhouse gases and calls upon developed countries to aim to return these emissions to their 1990 levels by the year 2000. At its first session, the conference decided to begin negotiations on next steps under the convention to elaborate policies and measures and to set quantified limitation and reduction objectives for greenhouse gases.

In addition to its primary role in the fora listed above, DOS is active on the Committee on Environment and Natural Resources (CENR) of the National Science and Technology Council (NSTC). The CENR was established in 1993 to coordinate scientific domestic programs. Furthermore, while the emphasis on global environmental issues is a key new component of the department's focus, traditional DOS responsibilities, described in earlier federal plans, continue. These include, but are not limited to, international aspects of food policy, disaster warnings and assistance, WMO and UNEP activities, and international meteorological programs.

NUCLEAR REGULATORY COMMISSION

The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) licenses and regulates all nuclear facilities subject to the Atomic Energy Act of 1954 as amended. The licensing and operation of these nuclear facilities require the identification of meteorological and climatological conditions that can affect the safe operation of the facility, and that provide input to the assessment of the radiological impacts of any airborne releases from the facility.

Within the NRC, reviews of facility siting, design, construction, and operation are conducted by the Office of Nuclear Reactor Regulation and the Office of Nuclear Material Safety and Safeguards. These reviews include consideration of meteorological factors. The NRC Office for Analysis and Evaluation of Operational Data and the NRC regional offices assure that commitments by NRC applicants, permittees, and licensees are carried out, and also conduct NRC responses to nuclear facility emergencies. The Office of Nuclear Regulatory Research develops regulations, guides, criteria, and other standards related to the protection of public health and safety and the environment in the licensing and operation of nuclear facilities. The office also develops and conducts confirmatory research programs in support of activities of the other offices and in support of rule making and standards activities.

The primary meteorological area in which the NRC will have an interest during FY 1997 and beyond is improvements in the meteorological capabilities of the NRC and the operators of nuclear facilities to cope with emergencies involving the unplanned releases of radioactive materials. The NRC also maintains an interest in the transport and dispersion of airborne, hazardous non-radioactive materials and their potential effects on the safe operation of nuclear facilities.

DEPARTMENT OF ENERGY

For nearly 50 years, the Department of Energy (DOE) and its predecessors, the Atomic Energy Commission and the Energy Research and Development Administration, have supported meteorological operations and atmospheric research at the DOE field offices. The need for meteorological services began with the development, fabrication, and testing of atomic weapons and the national security and safety issues associated with them. In addition, environmental protection legislation specifies requirements for meteorological services to protect public health and safety and the environment.

Meteorological services at DOE facilities range from complex research to daily operational support. Some examples of research are investigations of potential global climatic change, ultraviolet and infrared radiation studies, and studies of atmospheric boundary layer processes. Operational support includes daily weather forecast services, special project support, on-site meteorological monitoring, climatological services, and emergency response assistance. Some sites maintain 24-hour weather watches for severe weather conditions that could impact site operations, damage property, or threaten lives.

Several DOE field offices cover large areas, and some sites contain complex topography and heterogenous surface characteristics, creating locally driven conditions that influence on-site weather. For these reasons and to protect the environment and public health and safety, on-site meteorological monitoring has been and remains an essential part of DOE atmospheric science programs.

Some of the DOE sites contribute to the national weather observing network by taking standard surface and upper-air observations. Many of these sites are in remote areas where weather observations would be sparse if not for the presence of DOE meteorological monitoring programs. Weather observations taken at several of the DOE field sites are input to the national weather database via the NWS Automation of Field Operations and Services (AFOS) system--the NWS' primary meteorological data distribution and display system. AFOS also interconnects field offices and serves as the distribution system for NWS meteorological products that are centrally produced by the National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP). DOE facilities with AFOS units are connected to the NWS AFOS network through NOAA's Air Resources Laboratory (ARL) that supports the DOE/Nevada Operations Office in Las Vegas, Nevada, which serves as the hub for the NWS/DOE AFOS network.

An accidental release of radioactive or toxic material into the atmosphere can have potentially serious health and environmental consequences. Meteorological processes play a key role in determining the fate of pollutants released into the atmosphere. For example, the processing, fabricating, and underground testing of nuclear weapons all have the potential for industrial accident scenarios. In addition to these activities, the use of nuclear material in the generation of electric power and the storage of nuclear waste from power generation, weapons complexes, and medical and commercial processes are all potential sources of nuclear material that could be accidentally released into the atmosphere. Consequently, a central theme within the DOE community has been to protect public health, safety, and the environment on and around DOE facilities. Therefore, DOE has required and supported on-site meteorological monitoring, directed the development of emergency response capabilities at DOE facilities, funded research on the modeling of the transport, dispersion, deposition, and resuspension of radioactive and toxic materials, and advocated on-site weather forecasting services tailored specifically for the special operational and emergency management requirements at each DOE facility. Much of the research and most of the operational support has been provided by the atmospheric research programs at the six major field offices directly involved in national defense programs. Over the years, these programs have grown to address numerous environmental, safety, and health issues. Due to the complexity of these activities, it was recognized that efforts should be made to coordinate meteorological operations and research among the field offices to enhance cost effectiveness.

Based on a need to facilitate more coordination and cooperation among the meteorological activities at the DOE field offices, the DOE Meteorological Coordinating Council was created in 1994. The mission of the council is to coordinate meteorological support and research to meet DOE objectives. The objectives of the council are to: (1) promote cost effective support for all DOE facilities; (2) plan for future needs, requirements, and missions; (3) advocate awareness of atmospheric science applications and benefits to DOE; and (4) facilitate the use of common methods, procedures, and standards. The council is composed of senior DOE personnel and managers of DOE meteorological programs. The following narrative highlights the meteorological activities of the DOE field offices.

The Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) is managed by the Idaho Operations Office and is located on 890 square miles of rolling, arid terrain in southeastern Idaho at the foot of the Lost River and Lemhi mountain ranges. Meteorological services and supporting research are provided by ARL's Field Research Division (FRD) with the mission to support emergency response exercises and INEL operations with meteorological data, weather predictions, dispersion calculations, and consultation. ARL/FRD designs, arranges, and conducts field studies as needed to evaluate the performance of transport and dispersion models over local, regional, and continental scales, and to obtain high quality databases for the model improvement. They are recognized for their unique field experimentation capabilities, for expertise in conducting tracer studies, and for using direct and remote sensing technologies in support of tracer experiments.

To meet other mission requirements, ARL/FRD operates and manages a large meteorological monitoring network to characterize the meteorology and climatology of the INEL site. The network consists of 30 wind towers that provide wind and temperature data. The overall Meteorological Monitoring Program is designed to provide representative data for the INEL area to meet specific operational and potential emergency response situations. Most towers are 15 meters tall; however, four towers range from 45 to 75 meters in height. All towers are instrumented at multiple levels. Eleven have relative humidity, precipitation, and solar radiation sensors. Continuous wind and temperature profiles are obtained from a 915 MHz Doppler wind profiler and a Radio Acoustic Sounding System (RASS). Wind profiles generally extend to 5,000 feet above ground; temperature profiles extend to 1,500 feet. All meteorological data are quality-controlled and archived for future use. Additional use of this database is made in operational weather forecasts tailored to meet INEL and contractor requirements and to prepare climatological summaries that are distributed to users.

DOE operations at the Nevada Test Site (NTS) are managed by the Nevada Operations Office (NV). NTS is the Nation's underground nuclear weapons testing facility and occupies 1,350 square miles of south central Nevada. The topography of the NTS is complex with a system of dry lake beds and mountains. Elevations range from nearly 2,700 feet above mean sea level (MSL) to 7,600 feet MSL; the climate is arid.

Meteorological services are provided by ARL's Special Operations and Research Division (SORD). Over the last 40 years, ARL/SORD personnel have built a solid technical reputation in meteorological operations in the nuclear weapons testing arena. They are recognized for expertise in the transport, dispersion, and deposition of radioactive materials and for developing a rapid emergency response capability for the unlikely occurrence of an accident resulting from the release of radioactive material into the atmosphere.

Both basic and applied research are carried out on problems of mutual interest to DOE and to NOAA. Emphasis is on the maintenance of meteorological support to national defense projects and to the stewardship of nuclear weapons. These capabilities focus on those facets of meteorology having a direct bearing on the transport, dispersion, deposition (fallout), and resuspension of radioactive and/or toxic materials.

ARL/SORD provides full meteorological support to all DOE/NV operations on and off the NTS. The staff is responsible for conducting a modern program in support of nuclear and non-nuclear projects authorized by NV. Furthermore, ARL/ SORD provides technical support to the NV emergency preparedness and response activities, operates a thorough meteorological monitoring program for the NTS, and provides meteorological and climatological services required in support of NV and contractor programs at the NTS and elsewhere, as necessary. ARL/SORD personnel also consult with senior scientists and engineers at the DOE National Laboratories, NASA, private contractors, EPA, USGS, USFS, and other NOAA laboratories.

The SORD meteorological monitoring network consists of thirty-one 10-meter towers and two 30-meter towers. Wind direction and speed are measured at the 10-meter level on all the towers and temperature and relative humidity are sampled at the 2-meter level. Data from these towers are transmitted via microwave radio to a central processor that checks the data, creates data files, and archives the data every 15 minutes. The data files are accessed by microcomputers to create graphics products for operational use and for immediate display at 15 minute intervals.

ARL/SORD is the DOE node for distribution of NWS AFOS products. Other weather products supplied to DOE contractors, the National Laboratories, NWS, and Nellis Air Force Base include real-time cloud-to-ground lightning flash graphical products and local forecast products. ARL/SORD also provides meteorological monitoring support and weather forecast services to Nuclear Emergency Search Team (NEST) and Federal Radiological Monitoring and Assessment Center (FRMAC) activities. Monitoring support includes surface and upper-air data collection and analysis. Weather forecast service entails maintaining a constant weather watch for conditions that might impact NEST/FRMAC operations and personnel, issuing site-specific, mesoscale wind, stability, and weather forecasts, and providing consultation to the on-scene commander and to National Laboratories personnel.

The DOE Oak Ridge Operations Office (OR) is located on nearly 100 square miles of hilly and heavily vegetated terrain in eastern Tennessee and is supported by ARL's Atmospheric Turbulence and Diffusion Division (ATDD). ARL/ATDD's primary mission is atmospheric research, and their scientists conduct research on matters of atmospheric diffusion and turbulent exchange, concerning air quality. Attention is focused on the physics of the lower atmosphere, with special emphasis on the processes contributing to atmospheric transport, dispersion, and deposition, and on the development of predictive capabilities using the results of this research. Research is directed toward issues of national and global importance, related to the missions of DOE and NOAA. The research program is divided into five major projects; namely, plume transport and diffusion in the planetary boundary layer, complex topography, canopy micrometeorology, dry deposition, and wind-tunnel modeling. The objectives of the research are: (1) to develop better methods for describing atmospheric transport, diffusion, and deposition in numerical simulations; (2) to extend the applicability of these techniques to non-ideal situations such as non-stationary conditions, complex terrain, and dense vegetation; and (3) to develop and test improved numerical models incorporating these new methods. Research programs are undertaken with the assistance of personnel of the Energy/Environment Systems Division of Oak Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU), and in close collaboration with scientists from the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and various other organizations, universities, government agencies, and private research institutions working in their area of expertise.

Operationally, ARL/ATDD personnel provide meteorological consultation and supplemental data to local OR users for air quality analyses, environmental reports, and emergency preparedness. They also work closely with the ORAU to enhance educational opportunities in atmospheric science.

Meteorological services to the DOE Richland Operations Office has been provided by Battelle Pacific Northwest Laboratories (PNL) for nearly 50 years. Not only has operational support been provided, but also supporting research into atmospheric processes has been a key part of PNL's support to DOE-Richland. The facility covers 560 square miles within the arid and sparsely vegetated Columbia River basin in south-eastern Washington. Key DOE research activities at PNL's Environmental Science Research Center include the Global Change Research Program (GCRP), the Atmospheric Radiation Monitoring (ARM) program, the Core Carbon Dioxide Research program, the Computer Hardware Advanced Mathematics and Model Physics (CHAMMP) program, the Atmospheric Studies in Complex Terrain (ASCOT) program, and the Processing of Emissions by Clouds and Precipitation (PRECP) program.

GCRP focuses on the study of basic geophysical processes and development of databases that are critical for understanding global and regional climatic change. The ARM program is designed to characterize empirically the radiative processes in the atmosphere with high spatial, temporal, and spectral resolution and accuracy at four to six climatologically important sites distributed worldwide. The goal of the CHAMMP program is to produce a climate modeling system having 10,000 times the capacity of the current generation of models and computers. In addition, carbon dioxide emissions research is aimed at providing a scientific basis for forecasting future emissions of carbon dioxide and other radiatively important gases.

Other research at PNL includes large field experiments and modeling efforts in collaboration with other laboratories and universities. The focus is on processes of transport, dispersion, transformation, and deposition. The ASCOT program involves research into atmospheric transport and dispersion, focusing experimental, theoretical, and modeling efforts on atmospheric boundary-layer and mesoscale processes, and the PRECP program has already completed experiments leading to improvements in source-receptor models for acid deposition.

PNL's Meteorological and Climatological Services Project (MSCP) office provides meteorological monitoring and operational support on a 24-hour basis. The monitoring system consists of an array of twenty-three 10-meter towers and three 60-meter towers instrumented with temperature and wind direction and speed sensors. Data from this network are transmitted via UHF radio to a computer that decodes the data and plots graphics products for immediate display and use by Hanford Meteorological Station personnel. Other meteorological data are received via the NWS/DOE AFOS network. Meteorological services include emergency response functions, weather forecasting for on-site operations and special projects, and climatological support. MSCP support to the Hanford site includes: (1) extensive data acquisition via a site-wide meteorological monitoring network, (2) around-the-clock weather forecasting services, (3) hourly surface observations, 6-hourly synoptic observations, and twice-daily pilot balloon releases, and (4) monthly and annual climatological data summaries, plus meteorological input to annual environmental reports.

Support to the Rocky Flats Office (RFO) is provided by EG&G, Rocky Flats, Inc. This facility is located along the eastern slopes of the Rocky Mountains, approximately 15 miles northwest of Denver, Colorado, and is one of the smaller sites, covering only 10 square miles. Part of the former Rocky Flats nuclear weapons facility has been transformed into the National Wind Technology Center as a research facility to aid industry in developing advanced wind energy systems for the future.

EG&G scientific and technical personnel provide meteorological and climatological services in support of RFO site operations. Weather forecasts are issued twice daily to support on-site operations and other weather-sensitive activities. A constant weather watch is maintained during routine working hours for severe thunderstorms, lightning, winter storms, and strong winds. In addition, EG&G manages and operates a meteorological monitoring program that uses local NOAA/ERL meteorological data. They also conduct dose assessments, run dispersion models, and support an emergency response preparedness program. The Colorado Department of Public Health has formally approved the Rocky Flats emergency response program. On-site meteorological monitoring is provided by wind and temperature data collected from a 60-meter tower. This tower is equipped with standard meteorological sensors located at the surface, 10 meters, 25 meters, and 60 meters above the ground. Data are transmitted to the forecast office and to the Emergency Operations Center every 15 minutes. These data are also archived for future use. EG&G plans to have a SODAR/RASS system operational on-site, and there are plans to access meteorological data from five Colorado Department of Public Health and Environment 10-meter towers located near the plant.

The Savannah River Operations Office (SR) is located in extreme southwestern South Carolina, along the banks of the Savannah River. The Savannah River Site (SRS) covers an area of approximately 300 square miles and is managed by the Westinghouse Savannah River Company--the primary producer of tritium for use in nuclear weapons. The climate is typical of the southeastern U.S. with hot, humid summers and mild, wet winters. SRS is heavily vegetated with evergreen trees and contains many streams, a swamp, and a 2,700-acre reservoir built as a cooling pond for the plant reactors.

Support to SR operations is provided by the Westinghouse Savannah River Meteorological Program and includes daily weather forecast services for the SRS. Meteorological data is obtained from a local network of eight 200-foot towers with sensors at the 200 foot level, a 200-foot tower instrumented at four levels, and a 1,000-foot tower. Additional local upper-air data are collected from three acoustic Doppler radars, a Beukers rawinsonde system, and an airsonde and tethersonde system. Other meteorological data are received via the NWS/DOE AFOS network. Research on atmospheric transport and dispersion is also conducted to provide SRS with the best modeling capability available to support emergency response operations and other programs.

FEDERAL EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT AGENCY

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is the central agency within the federal government responsible for emergency preparedness training and exercises, mitigation, response, and recovery. Working closely with state and local governments, FEMA funds emergency programs and offers technical guidance and training. FEMA also coordinates federal disaster relief resources in a catastrophic disaster. These coordinated activities ensure a broad-based program to protect life and property and provide recovery assistance after a disaster. The agency was formed in 1979 by Presidential Executive Order 12127, replacing five former agencies and consolidating the Nation's emergency-related programs, including meteorological emergencies.

In carrying out its role, FEMA works with all of the agencies to assure that the delivery of meteorology-related information is conducted in keeping with established goals and objectives. As administrator of the National Flood Insurance Program, FEMA publishes Flood Insurance Rate Maps for all flood-prone communities, which serve as the official demarcation for flood risk. FEMA also publishes hurricane evacuation maps based on model simulation results from NWS's National Hurricane Center for regions subject to hurricanes.

FEMA's priority interests with the Office of the Federal Coordinator for Meteorology (OFCM) are in promoting standards and procedures which will enhance the ability of the Nation to mitigate and recover from emergencies and disasters. These interests extend to national standards for geographic information systems (GIS) used for delivery of meteorological products and services by other agencies. FEMA also actively supports the OFCM-sponsored Working Group for Post-Storm Data Acquisition (WG/PSDA) and the WG/PSDA's efforts to develop a National Plan for Post-Storm Data Acquisition to coordinate and support the collection, by the federal agencies, of perishable data after major storms. For meteorologically-related matters, the Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment Division, Mitigation Directorate, is the principal contact point within FEMA.

Appendix C
Appendix E
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